Medical College Admission Test (MCAT)
[Up to date with AAMC-provided info as of March 2022.]
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This page has info specifically about physics content that appears in the 'Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems' section of the MCAT. Check out the AAMC page about all the different sections if you need more general info on the MCAT: https://students-residents.aamc.org/prepare-mcat-exam/whats-mcat-exam
Right now, I have mostly physics/math content relating to the tested topics which makes up about 25% of this section. Hopefully in the future I can add chemistry topics, etc., to this site as well. Looking at the physics topics involved with Foundational Concepts 4 & 5 of this exam section specifically, we have:
Foundational Concept 4
Complex living organisms transport materials, sense their environment, process signals, and respond to changes using processes that can be understood in terms of physical principles.
The processes that take place within organisms follow the laws of physics. They can be quantified with equations that model the behavior at a fundamental level. For example, the principles of electromagnetic radiation and its interactions with matter can be exploited to generate structural information about molecules or to generate images of the human body. So, too, can atomic structure be used to predict the physical and chemical properties of atoms, including the amount of electromagnetic energy required to cause ionization.
Expand to see all the topics & links to practice content for each topic.
4A: Translational motion, forces, work, energy, and equilibrium in living systems
Translational Motion (PHY)
▪ Units and dimensions
▪ Vectors, components
▪ Vector addition
▪ Speed, velocity (average and instantaneous)
▪ Acceleration
Force (PHY)
▪ Newton’s First Law, inertia
▪ Newton’s Second Law (F = ma)
▪ Newton’s Third Law, forces equal and opposite
▪ Friction, static and kinetic
▪ Center of mass
Equilibrium (PHY)
▪ Vector analysis of forces acting on a point object
▪ Torques, lever arms
Work (PHY)
▪ Work done by a constant force: W = Fd cosθ
▪ Mechanical advantage
▪ Work Kinetic Energy Theorem
▪ Conservative forces
Energy of Point Object Systems (PHY)
▪ Kinetic Energy: KE = (1/2)mv^2; units
▪ Potential Energy
o PE = mgh (gravitational, local)
o PE = (1/2)kx^2 (spring)
▪ Conservation of energy
▪ Power, units
Periodic Motion (PHY)
▪ Amplitude, frequency, phase
▪ Transverse and longitudinal waves: wavelength and propagation speed
4B: Importance of fluids for the circulation of blood, gas movement, and gas exchange
Fluids (PHY)
▪ Density, specific gravity
▪ Buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle
▪ Hydrostatic pressure
o Pascal’s Law
o Hydrostatic pressure; P = ρgh (pressure vs. depth)
▪ Viscosity: Poiseuille Flow
▪ Continuity equation (A∙v = constant)
▪ Concept of turbulence at high velocities
▪ Surface tension
▪ Bernoulli’s equation
▪ Venturi effect, pitot tube
Circulatory System (BIO)
▪ Arterial and venous systems; pressure and flow characteristics
Gas Phase (GC, PHY)
▪ Absolute temperature, K, Kelvin scale
▪ Pressure, simple mercury barometer
▪ Molar volume at 0 C and 1 atm = 22.4 L/mol
▪ Ideal gas
o Definition of ideal gas
o Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
o Boyle’s Law: PV = constant
o Charles’ Law: V/T = constant
o Avogadro’s Law: V/n = constant
▪ Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
o Heat capacity at constant volume and at constant pressure (PHY)
o Boltzmann’s Constant (PHY)
▪ Deviation of real gas behavior from Ideal Gas Law
o Qualitative & quantitative (Van der Waals’ Equation)
▪ Partial pressure, mole fraction
▪ Dalton’s Law relating partial pressure to composition
4C: Electrochemistry and electrical circuits and their elements
Electrostatics (PHY)
▪ Charge, conductors, charge conservation
▪ Insulators
▪ Coulomb’s Law
▪ Electric field E
o Field lines
o Field due to charge distribution
▪ Electrostatic energy, electric potential at a point in space
Circuit Elements (PHY)
▪ Current I = ΔQ/Δt, sign conventions, units
▪ Electromotive force, voltage
▪ Resistance
o Ohm’s Law: I = V/R
o Resistors in series
o Resistors in parallel
o Resistivity: ρ = R•A/L
▪ Capacitance
o Parallel plate capacitor
o Energy of charged capacitor
o Capacitors in series
o Capacitors in parallel
o Dielectrics
▪ Conductivity
o Metallic
o Electrolytic
▪ Meters
Magnetism (PHY)
▪ Definition of magnetic field B
▪ Motion of charged particles in magnetic fields; Lorentz force
Electrochemistry (GC)
▪ Electrolytic cell
o Electrolysis
o Anode, cathode
o Electrolyte
o Faraday’s Law relating amount of elements deposited (or gas liberated) at an electrode to current
o Electron flow; oxidation and reduction at the electrodes
▪ Galvanic or Voltaic cells
o Half-reactions
o Reduction potentials; cell potential
o Direction of electron flow
▪ Concentration cell
▪ Batteries
o Electromotive force, voltage
o Lead-storage batteries
o Nickel-cadmium batteries
Specialized Cell ― Nerve Cell (BIO)
▪ Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
▪ Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon
4D: How light and sound interact with matter
Sound (PHY)
▪ Production of sound
▪ Relative speed of sound in solids, liquids, and gases
▪ Intensity of sound, decibel units, log scale
▪ Attenuation (damping)
▪ Doppler Effect: moving sound source or observer, reflection of sound from a moving object
▪ Pitch
▪ Resonance in pipes and strings
▪ Ultrasound
▪ Shock waves
Light, Electromagnetic Radiation (PHY)
▪ Concept of Interference; Young’s double-slit experiment
▪ Thin films, diffraction grating, single-slit diffraction
▪ Other diffraction phenomena, X-ray diffraction
▪ Polarization of light: linear and circular
▪ Properties of electromagnetic radiation
o Velocity equals constant c, in vacuo
o Electromagnetic radiation consists of perpendicularly oscillating electric and magnetic fields; direction of propagation is perpendicular to both
▪ Classification of electromagnetic spectrum, photon energy E = hf
▪ Visual spectrum, color
Molecular Structure and Absorption Spectra (OC)
▪ Infrared region
o Intramolecular vibrations and rotations
o Recognizing common characteristic group absorptions, fingerprint region
▪ Visible region (GC)
o Absorption in visible region gives complementary color (e.g., carotene)
o Effect of structural changes on absorption (e.g., indicators)
▪ Ultraviolet region
o π-Electron and nonbonding electron transitions
o Conjugated systems
▪ NMR spectroscopy
o Protons in a magnetic field; equivalent protons
o Spin-spin splitting
Geometrical Optics (PHY)
▪ Reflection from plane surface: angle of incidence equals angle of reflection
▪ Refraction, refractive index n; Snell’s law: n1 sin θ1= n2 sin θ2
▪ Dispersion, change of index of refraction with wavelength
▪ Conditions for total internal reflection
▪ Spherical mirrors
o Center of curvature
o Focal length
o Real and virtual images
▪ Thin lenses
o Converging and diverging lenses
o Use of formula 1/p + 1/q = 1/f, with sign conventions
o Lens strength, diopters
▪ Combination of lenses
▪ Lens aberration
▪ Optical Instruments, including the human eye
4E: Atoms, nuclear decay, electronic structure, and atomic chemical behavior
Atomic Nucleus (PHY, GC)
▪ Atomic number, atomic weight
▪ Neutrons, protons, isotopes
▪ Nuclear forces, binding energy
▪ Radioactive decay
o α, β, γ decay
o Half-life, exponential decay, semi-log plots
▪ Mass spectrometer
▪ Mass spectroscopy
Electronic Structure (PHY, GC)
▪ Orbital structure of hydrogen atom, principal quantum number n, number of electrons per orbital (GC)
▪ Ground state, excited states
▪ Absorption and emission line spectra
▪ Use of Pauli Exclusion Principle
▪ Paramagnetism and diamagnetism
▪ Conventional notation for electronic structure (GC)
▪ Bohr atom
▪ Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
▪ Effective nuclear charge (GC)
▪ Photoelectric effect
The Periodic Table ― Classification of Elements Into Groups by Electronic Structure (GC)
▪ Alkali metals
▪ Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics
▪ Halogens: their chemical characteristics
▪ Noble gases: their physical and chemical characteristics
▪ Transition metals
▪ Representative elements
▪ Metals and nonmetals
▪ Oxygen group
The Periodic Table ― Variations of Chemical Properties with Group and Row (GC)
▪ Valence electrons
▪ First and second ionization energy
o Definition
o Prediction from electronic structure for elements in different groups or rows
▪ Electron affinity
o Definition
o Variation with group and row
▪ Electronegativity
o Definition
o Comparative values for some representative elements and important groups
▪ Electron shells and the sizes of atoms
▪ Electron shells and the sizes of ions
Stoichiometry (GC)
▪ Molecular weight
▪ Empirical vs. molecular formula
▪ Metric units commonly used in the context of chemistry
▪ Description of composition by percent mass
▪ Mole concept, Avogadro’s number NA
▪ Definition of density
▪ Oxidation number
o Common oxidizing and reducing agents
o Disproportionation reactions
▪ Description of reactions by chemical equations
o Conventions for writing chemical equations
o Balancing equations, including redox equations
o Limiting reactants
o Theoretical yields
Foundational Concept 5
The principles that govern chemical interactions and reactions form the basis for a broader understanding of the molecular dynamics of living systems.
The chemical processes that take place within organisms are readily understood within the framework of the behavior of solutions, thermodynamics, molecular structure, intermolecular interactions, molecular dynamics, and molecular reactivity.
Expand to see all the topics & links to practice content for each topic.
5A: Unique nature of water and its solutions
Acid-Base Equilibria (GC, BC)
▪ Brønsted-Lowry definition of acid, base
▪ Ionization of water
o Kw, its approximate value (Kw = [H+][OH–] = 10^–14 at 25 C, 1 atm)
o Definition of pH: pH of pure water
▪ Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH4+ and NH3)
▪ Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric)
▪ Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic)
o Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt
o Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases
o Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases
▪ Equilibrium constants Ka and Kb: pKa, pKb
▪ Buffers
o Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)
o Influence on titration curves
Ions in Solutions (GC, BC)
▪ Anion, cation: common names, formulas, and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH4+ ammonium, PO_4^3– phosphate, SO_4^2– sulfate)
▪ Hydration, the hydronium ion
Solubility (GC)
▪ Units of concentration (e.g., molarity)
▪ Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression K_sp
▪ Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations
o Complex ion formation
o Complex ions and solubility
o Solubility and pH
Titration (GC)
▪ Indicators
▪ Neutralization
▪ Interpretation of the titration curves
▪ Redox titration
5B: Nature of molecules and intermolecular interactions
Covalent Bond (GC)
▪ Lewis electron dot formulas
o Resonance structures
o Formal charge
o Lewis acids and bases
▪ Partial ionic character
o Role of electronegativity in determining charge distribution
o Dipole moment
▪ σ and π bonds
o Hybrid orbitals: sp3, sp2, sp, and respective geometries
o Valence shell electron pair repulsion and the prediction of shapes of molecules (e.g., NH3, H2O, CO2)
o Structural formulas for molecules involving H, C, N, O, F, S, P, Si, Cl
o Delocalized electrons and resonance in ions and molecules
▪ Multiple bonding
o Effect on bond length and bond energies
o Rigidity in molecular structure
▪ Stereochemistry of covalently bonded molecules (OC)
o Isomers
▪ Structural isomers
▪ Stereoisomers (e.g., diastereomers, enantiomers, cis-trans isomers)
▪ Conformational isomers
o Polarization of light, specific rotation
o Absolute and relative configuration
▪ Conventions for writing R and S forms
▪ Conventions for writing E and Z forms
Liquid Phase ― Intermolecular Forces (GC)
▪ Hydrogen bonding
▪ Dipole Interactions
▪ Van der Waals’ Forces (London dispersion forces)
5C: Separation and purification methods
Separations and Purifications (OC, BC)
▪ Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents
▪ Distillation
▪ Chromatography: basic principles involved in separation process
o Column chromatography
▪ Gas-liquid chromatography
▪ High-pressure liquid chromatography
o Paper chromatography
o Thin-layer chromatography
▪ Separation and purification of peptides and proteins (BC)
o Electrophoresis
o Quantitative analysis
o Chromatography
▪ Size-exclusion
▪ Ion-exchange
▪ Affinity
▪ Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (OC)
5D: Structure, function, and reactivity of biologically relevant molecules
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BC, BIO)
▪ Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition
o Sugar phosphate backbone
o Pyrimidine, purine residues
▪ Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; ribonucleic acid: RNA; double helix; RNA structures
▪ Chemistry (BC)
▪ Other functions (BC)
Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (OC, BC)
▪ Amino acids: description
o Absolute configuration at the α position
o Dipolar ions
o Classification
▪ Acidic or basic
▪ Hydrophilic or hydrophobic
o Synthesis of α-amino acids (OC)
▪ Strecker Synthesis
▪ Gabriel Synthesis
▪ Peptides and proteins: reactions
o Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
o Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
o Hydrolysis (BC)
▪ General principles
o Primary structure of proteins
o Secondary structure of proteins
o Tertiary structure of proteins
o Isoelectric point
The Three-Dimensional Protein Structure (BC)
▪ Conformational stability
o Hydrophobic interactions
o Solvation layer (entropy)
▪ Quaternary structure
▪ Denaturing and folding
Nonenzymatic Protein Function (BC)
▪ Binding
▪ Immune system
▪ Motor
Lipids (BC, OC)
▪ Description, types
o Storage
▪ Triacyl glycerols
▪ Free fatty acids: saponification
o Structural
▪ Phospholipids and phosphatids
▪ Sphingolipids (BC)
▪ Waxes
o Signals, cofactors
▪ Fat-soluble vitamins
▪ Steroids
▪ Prostaglandins (BC)
Carbohydrates (OC)
▪ Description
o Nomenclature and classification, common names
o Absolute configuration
o Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
o Epimers and anomers
▪ Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
▪ Keto-enol tautomerism of monosaccharides
▪ Disaccharides (BC)
▪ Polysaccharides (BC)
Aldehydes and Ketones (OC)
▪ Description
o Nomenclature
o Physical properties
▪ Important reactions
o Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond
▪ Acetal, hemiacetal
▪ Imine, enamine
▪ Hydride reagents
▪ Cyanohydrin
o Oxidation of aldehydes
o Reactions at adjacent positions: enolate chemistry
▪ Keto-enol tautomerism (α-racemization)
▪ Aldol condensation, retro-aldol
▪ Kinetic vs. thermodynamic enolate
▪ General principles
o Effect of substituents on reactivity of C=O; steric hindrance
o Acidity of α-H; carbanions
Alcohols (OC)
▪ Description
o Nomenclature
o Physical properties (acidity, hydrogen bonding)
▪ Important reactions
o Oxidation
o Substitution reactions: SN1 or SN2
o Protection of alcohols
o Preparation of mesylates and tosylates
Carboxylic Acids (OC)
▪ Description
o Nomenclature
o Physical properties
▪ Important reactions
o Carboxyl group reactions
▪ Amides (and lactam), esters (and lactone), anhydride formation
▪ Reduction
▪ Decarboxylation
o Reactions at 2-position, substitution
Acid Derivatives (Anhydrides, Amides, Esters) (OC)
▪ Description
o Nomenclature
o Physical properties
▪ Important reactions
o Nucleophilic substitution
o Transesterification
o Hydrolysis of amides
▪ General principles
o Relative reactivity of acid derivatives
o Steric effects
o Electronic effects
o Strain (e.g., β-lactams)
Phenols (OC, BC)
▪ Oxidation and reduction (e.g., hydroquinones, ubiquinones): biological 2e– redox centers
Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (OC, BC)
▪ Biological aromatic heterocycles
5E: Principles of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics
Enzymes (BC, BIO)
▪ Classification by reaction type
▪ Mechanism
o Substrates and enzyme specificity
o Active-site model
o Induced-fit model
o Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins
▪ Kinetics
o General (catalysis)
o Michaelis-Menten
o Cooperativity
o Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
▪ Inhibition
▪ Regulatory enzymes
o Allosteric
o Covalently modified
Principles of Bioenergetics (BC)
▪ Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
o Free energy, Keq
o Concentration
▪ Phosphorylation/ATP
o ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0
o ATP group transfers
▪ Biological oxidation-reduction
o Half-reactions
o Soluble electron carriers
o Flavoproteins
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions ― Thermochemistry, Thermodynamics (GC, PHY)
▪ Thermodynamic system – state function
▪ Zeroth Law – concept of temperature
▪ First Law − conservation of energy in thermodynamic processes
▪ PV diagram: work done = area under or enclosed by curve (PHY)
▪ Second Law – concept of entropy
o Entropy as a measure of “disorder”
o Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states
▪ Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat
▪ Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation (PHY)
▪ Endothermic, exothermic reactions (GC)
o Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formation
o Hess’ Law of Heat Summation
▪ Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation (GC)
▪ Free energy: G (GC)
▪ Spontaneous reactions and ΔG (GC)
▪ Coefficient of expansion (PHY)
▪ Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization
▪ Phase diagram: pressure and temperature
Rate Processes in Chemical Reactions ― Kinetics and Equilibrium (GC)
▪ Reaction rate
▪ Dependence of reaction rate on concentration of reactants
o Rate law, rate constant
o Reaction order
physics & math to know for the MCAT:
MCAT physics formula sheet.pdfPage updated
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